diff --git a/Documentation/RelNotes/2.51.0.adoc b/Documentation/RelNotes/2.51.0.adoc
index 5e254541b5f182..78b4918533f29e 100644
--- a/Documentation/RelNotes/2.51.0.adoc
+++ b/Documentation/RelNotes/2.51.0.adoc
@@ -61,6 +61,9 @@ UI, Workflows & Features
  * "git pull" learned to pay attention to pull.autostash configuration
    variable, which overrides rebase/merge.autostash.
 
+ * "git for-each-ref" learns "--start-after" option to help
+   applications that want to page its output.
+
 
 Performance, Internal Implementation, Development Support etc.
 --------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -125,6 +128,11 @@ Performance, Internal Implementation, Development Support etc.
  * The reftable unit tests are now ported to the "clar" unit testing
    framework.
 
+ * Redefine where the multi-pack-index sits in the object subsystem,
+   which recently was restructured to allow multiple backends that
+   support a single object source that belongs to one repository.  A
+   midx does span mulitple "object sources".
+
 
 Fixes since v2.50
 -----------------
@@ -252,6 +260,15 @@ including security updates, are included in this release.
    core.commentstring is set to 'auto'.
    (merge 92b7c7c9f5 ac/auto-comment-char-fix later to maint).
 
+ * "git rebase -i" with bogus rebase.instructionFormat configuration
+   failed to produce the todo file after recording the state files,
+   leading to confused "git status"; this has been corrected.
+   (merge ade14bffd7 ow/rebase-verify-insn-fmt-before-initializing-state later to maint).
+
+ * A few file descriptors left unclosed upon program completion in a
+   few test helper programs are now closed.
+   (merge 0f1b33815b hl/test-helper-fd-close later to maint).
+
  * Other code cleanup, docfix, build fix, etc.
    (merge b257adb571 lo/my-first-ow-doc-update later to maint).
    (merge 8b34b6a220 ly/sequencer-update-squash-is-fixup-only later to maint).
diff --git a/Documentation/git-for-each-ref.adoc b/Documentation/git-for-each-ref.adoc
index 5ef89fc0fe3c9d..ae61ba642a6389 100644
--- a/Documentation/git-for-each-ref.adoc
+++ b/Documentation/git-for-each-ref.adoc
@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ SYNOPSIS
 		   [--points-at=<object>]
 		   [--merged[=<object>]] [--no-merged[=<object>]]
 		   [--contains[=<object>]] [--no-contains[=<object>]]
-		   [--exclude=<pattern> ...]
+		   [--exclude=<pattern> ...] [--start-after=<marker>]
 
 DESCRIPTION
 -----------
@@ -108,6 +108,14 @@ TAB %(refname)`.
 --include-root-refs::
 	List root refs (HEAD and pseudorefs) apart from regular refs.
 
+--start-after=<marker>::
+    Allows paginating the output by skipping references up to and including the
+    specified marker. When paging, it should be noted that references may be
+    deleted, modified or added between invocations. Output will only yield those
+    references which follow the marker lexicographically. Output begins from the
+    first reference that would come after the marker alphabetically. Cannot be
+    used with general pattern matching or custom sort options.
+
 FIELD NAMES
 -----------
 
diff --git a/builtin/for-each-ref.c b/builtin/for-each-ref.c
index 3d2207ec7733b2..3f21598046a758 100644
--- a/builtin/for-each-ref.c
+++ b/builtin/for-each-ref.c
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ static char const * const for_each_ref_usage[] = {
 	N_("git for-each-ref [--points-at <object>]"),
 	N_("git for-each-ref [--merged [<commit>]] [--no-merged [<commit>]]"),
 	N_("git for-each-ref [--contains [<commit>]] [--no-contains [<commit>]]"),
+	N_("git for-each-ref [--start-after <marker>]"),
 	NULL
 };
 
@@ -44,6 +45,7 @@ int cmd_for_each_ref(int argc,
 		OPT_GROUP(""),
 		OPT_INTEGER( 0 , "count", &format.array_opts.max_count, N_("show only <n> matched refs")),
 		OPT_STRING(  0 , "format", &format.format, N_("format"), N_("format to use for the output")),
+		OPT_STRING(  0 , "start-after", &filter.start_after, N_("start-start"), N_("start iteration after the provided marker")),
 		OPT__COLOR(&format.use_color, N_("respect format colors")),
 		OPT_REF_FILTER_EXCLUDE(&filter),
 		OPT_REF_SORT(&sorting_options),
@@ -79,6 +81,9 @@ int cmd_for_each_ref(int argc,
 	if (verify_ref_format(&format))
 		usage_with_options(for_each_ref_usage, opts);
 
+	if (filter.start_after && sorting_options.nr > 1)
+		die(_("cannot use --start-after with custom sort options"));
+
 	sorting = ref_sorting_options(&sorting_options);
 	ref_sorting_set_sort_flags_all(sorting, REF_SORTING_ICASE, icase);
 	filter.ignore_case = icase;
@@ -100,6 +105,9 @@ int cmd_for_each_ref(int argc,
 		filter.name_patterns = argv;
 	}
 
+	if (filter.start_after && filter.name_patterns && filter.name_patterns[0])
+		die(_("cannot use --start-after with patterns"));
+
 	if (include_root_refs)
 		flags |= FILTER_REFS_ROOT_REFS | FILTER_REFS_DETACHED_HEAD;
 
diff --git a/builtin/pack-objects.c b/builtin/pack-objects.c
index 067b9e322a9db4..3dd84495b869e0 100644
--- a/builtin/pack-objects.c
+++ b/builtin/pack-objects.c
@@ -1706,8 +1706,8 @@ static int want_object_in_pack_mtime(const struct object_id *oid,
 				     uint32_t found_mtime)
 {
 	int want;
+	struct odb_source *source;
 	struct list_head *pos;
-	struct multi_pack_index *m;
 
 	if (!exclude && local && has_loose_object_nonlocal(oid))
 		return 0;
@@ -1727,9 +1727,13 @@ static int want_object_in_pack_mtime(const struct object_id *oid,
 		*found_offset = 0;
 	}
 
-	for (m = get_multi_pack_index(the_repository); m; m = m->next) {
+	odb_prepare_alternates(the_repository->objects);
+
+	for (source = the_repository->objects->sources; source; source = source->next) {
+		struct multi_pack_index *m = get_multi_pack_index(source);
 		struct pack_entry e;
-		if (fill_midx_entry(the_repository, oid, &e, m)) {
+
+		if (m && fill_midx_entry(the_repository, oid, &e, m)) {
 			want = want_object_in_pack_one(e.p, oid, exclude, found_pack, found_offset, found_mtime);
 			if (want != -1)
 				return want;
diff --git a/builtin/rebase.c b/builtin/rebase.c
index e90562a3b8a84e..08024e133cb187 100644
--- a/builtin/rebase.c
+++ b/builtin/rebase.c
@@ -293,15 +293,6 @@ static int do_interactive_rebase(struct rebase_options *opts, unsigned flags)
 				&revisions, &shortrevisions))
 		goto cleanup;
 
-	if (init_basic_state(&replay,
-			     opts->head_name ? opts->head_name : "detached HEAD",
-			     opts->onto, &opts->orig_head->object.oid))
-		goto cleanup;
-
-	if (!opts->upstream && opts->squash_onto)
-		write_file(path_squash_onto(), "%s\n",
-			   oid_to_hex(opts->squash_onto));
-
 	strvec_pushl(&make_script_args, "", revisions, NULL);
 	if (opts->restrict_revision)
 		strvec_pushf(&make_script_args, "^%s",
@@ -310,21 +301,30 @@ static int do_interactive_rebase(struct rebase_options *opts, unsigned flags)
 	ret = sequencer_make_script(the_repository, &todo_list.buf,
 				    make_script_args.nr, make_script_args.v,
 				    flags);
-
-	if (ret)
+	if (ret) {
 		error(_("could not generate todo list"));
-	else {
-		discard_index(the_repository->index);
-		if (todo_list_parse_insn_buffer(the_repository, &replay,
-						todo_list.buf.buf, &todo_list))
-			BUG("unusable todo list");
-
-		ret = complete_action(the_repository, &replay, flags,
-			shortrevisions, opts->onto_name, opts->onto,
-			&opts->orig_head->object.oid, &opts->exec,
-			opts->autosquash, opts->update_refs, &todo_list);
+		goto cleanup;
 	}
 
+	if (init_basic_state(&replay,
+			     opts->head_name ? opts->head_name : "detached HEAD",
+			     opts->onto, &opts->orig_head->object.oid))
+		goto cleanup;
+
+	if (!opts->upstream && opts->squash_onto)
+		write_file(path_squash_onto(), "%s\n",
+			   oid_to_hex(opts->squash_onto));
+
+	discard_index(the_repository->index);
+	if (todo_list_parse_insn_buffer(the_repository, &replay,
+					todo_list.buf.buf, &todo_list))
+		BUG("unusable todo list");
+
+	ret = complete_action(the_repository, &replay, flags,
+		shortrevisions, opts->onto_name, opts->onto,
+		&opts->orig_head->object.oid, &opts->exec,
+		opts->autosquash, opts->update_refs, &todo_list);
+
 cleanup:
 	replay_opts_release(&replay);
 	free(revisions);
diff --git a/builtin/repack.c b/builtin/repack.c
index 75158d7776eff6..21723866b9cdeb 100644
--- a/builtin/repack.c
+++ b/builtin/repack.c
@@ -223,9 +223,9 @@ static void mark_packs_for_deletion(struct existing_packs *existing,
 static void remove_redundant_pack(const char *dir_name, const char *base_name)
 {
 	struct strbuf buf = STRBUF_INIT;
-	struct multi_pack_index *m = get_local_multi_pack_index(the_repository);
+	struct multi_pack_index *m = get_multi_pack_index(the_repository->objects->sources);
 	strbuf_addf(&buf, "%s.pack", base_name);
-	if (m && midx_contains_pack(m, buf.buf))
+	if (m && m->local && midx_contains_pack(m, buf.buf))
 		clear_midx_file(the_repository);
 	strbuf_insertf(&buf, 0, "%s/", dir_name);
 	unlink_pack_path(buf.buf, 1);
@@ -1531,7 +1531,7 @@ int cmd_repack(int argc,
 		 * midx_has_unknown_packs() will make the decision for
 		 * us.
 		 */
-		if (!get_local_multi_pack_index(the_repository))
+		if (!get_multi_pack_index(the_repository->objects->sources))
 			midx_must_contain_cruft = 1;
 	}
 
@@ -1614,9 +1614,9 @@ int cmd_repack(int argc,
 
 	string_list_sort(&names);
 
-	if (get_local_multi_pack_index(the_repository)) {
+	if (get_multi_pack_index(the_repository->objects->sources)) {
 		struct multi_pack_index *m =
-			get_local_multi_pack_index(the_repository);
+			get_multi_pack_index(the_repository->objects->sources);
 
 		ALLOC_ARRAY(midx_pack_names,
 			    m->num_packs + m->num_packs_in_base);
diff --git a/midx-write.c b/midx-write.c
index f2cfb85476ed78..c1ae62d3549425 100644
--- a/midx-write.c
+++ b/midx-write.c
@@ -916,26 +916,8 @@ static int write_midx_bitmap(struct write_midx_context *ctx,
 static struct multi_pack_index *lookup_multi_pack_index(struct repository *r,
 							const char *object_dir)
 {
-	struct multi_pack_index *result = NULL;
-	struct multi_pack_index *cur;
-	char *obj_dir_real = real_pathdup(object_dir, 1);
-	struct strbuf cur_path_real = STRBUF_INIT;
-
-	/* Ensure the given object_dir is local, or a known alternate. */
-	odb_find_source(r->objects, obj_dir_real);
-
-	for (cur = get_multi_pack_index(r); cur; cur = cur->next) {
-		strbuf_realpath(&cur_path_real, cur->object_dir, 1);
-		if (!strcmp(obj_dir_real, cur_path_real.buf)) {
-			result = cur;
-			goto cleanup;
-		}
-	}
-
-cleanup:
-	free(obj_dir_real);
-	strbuf_release(&cur_path_real);
-	return result;
+	struct odb_source *source = odb_find_source(r->objects, object_dir);
+	return get_multi_pack_index(source);
 }
 
 static int fill_packs_from_midx(struct write_midx_context *ctx,
diff --git a/midx.c b/midx.c
index 3c5bc8217300ca..7d407682e60a6f 100644
--- a/midx.c
+++ b/midx.c
@@ -401,7 +401,6 @@ void close_midx(struct multi_pack_index *m)
 	if (!m)
 		return;
 
-	close_midx(m->next);
 	close_midx(m->base_midx);
 
 	munmap((unsigned char *)m->data, m->data_len);
@@ -724,32 +723,20 @@ int midx_preferred_pack(struct multi_pack_index *m, uint32_t *pack_int_id)
 	return 0;
 }
 
-int prepare_multi_pack_index_one(struct repository *r, const char *object_dir, int local)
+int prepare_multi_pack_index_one(struct odb_source *source, int local)
 {
-	struct multi_pack_index *m;
-	struct multi_pack_index *m_search;
+	struct repository *r = source->odb->repo;
 
 	prepare_repo_settings(r);
 	if (!r->settings.core_multi_pack_index)
 		return 0;
 
-	for (m_search = r->objects->multi_pack_index; m_search; m_search = m_search->next)
-		if (!strcmp(object_dir, m_search->object_dir))
-			return 1;
-
-	m = load_multi_pack_index(r, object_dir, local);
-
-	if (m) {
-		struct multi_pack_index *mp = r->objects->multi_pack_index;
-		if (mp) {
-			m->next = mp->next;
-			mp->next = m;
-		} else
-			r->objects->multi_pack_index = m;
+	if (source->midx)
 		return 1;
-	}
 
-	return 0;
+	source->midx = load_multi_pack_index(r, source->path, local);
+
+	return !!source->midx;
 }
 
 int midx_checksum_valid(struct multi_pack_index *m)
@@ -834,9 +821,14 @@ void clear_midx_file(struct repository *r)
 
 	get_midx_filename(r->hash_algo, &midx, r->objects->sources->path);
 
-	if (r->objects && r->objects->multi_pack_index) {
-		close_midx(r->objects->multi_pack_index);
-		r->objects->multi_pack_index = NULL;
+	if (r->objects) {
+		struct odb_source *source;
+
+		for (source = r->objects->sources; source; source = source->next) {
+			if (source->midx)
+				close_midx(source->midx);
+			source->midx = NULL;
+		}
 	}
 
 	if (remove_path(midx.buf))
diff --git a/midx.h b/midx.h
index 9d1374cbd58d01..076382de8acd26 100644
--- a/midx.h
+++ b/midx.h
@@ -8,6 +8,7 @@ struct pack_entry;
 struct repository;
 struct bitmapped_pack;
 struct git_hash_algo;
+struct odb_source;
 
 #define MIDX_SIGNATURE 0x4d494458 /* "MIDX" */
 #define MIDX_VERSION 1
@@ -34,8 +35,6 @@ struct git_hash_algo;
 	"GIT_TEST_MULTI_PACK_INDEX_WRITE_INCREMENTAL"
 
 struct multi_pack_index {
-	struct multi_pack_index *next;
-
 	const unsigned char *data;
 	size_t data_len;
 
@@ -123,7 +122,7 @@ int fill_midx_entry(struct repository *r, const struct object_id *oid, struct pa
 int midx_contains_pack(struct multi_pack_index *m,
 		       const char *idx_or_pack_name);
 int midx_preferred_pack(struct multi_pack_index *m, uint32_t *pack_int_id);
-int prepare_multi_pack_index_one(struct repository *r, const char *object_dir, int local);
+int prepare_multi_pack_index_one(struct odb_source *source, int local);
 
 /*
  * Variant of write_midx_file which writes a MIDX containing only the packs
diff --git a/object-name.c b/object-name.c
index 41930609e35d5a..11aa0e6afc565e 100644
--- a/object-name.c
+++ b/object-name.c
@@ -199,16 +199,20 @@ static void unique_in_pack(struct packed_git *p,
 
 static void find_short_packed_object(struct disambiguate_state *ds)
 {
-	struct multi_pack_index *m;
+	struct odb_source *source;
 	struct packed_git *p;
 
 	/* Skip, unless oids from the storage hash algorithm are wanted */
 	if (ds->bin_pfx.algo && (&hash_algos[ds->bin_pfx.algo] != ds->repo->hash_algo))
 		return;
 
-	for (m = get_multi_pack_index(ds->repo); m && !ds->ambiguous;
-	     m = m->next)
-		unique_in_midx(m, ds);
+	odb_prepare_alternates(ds->repo->objects);
+	for (source = ds->repo->objects->sources; source && !ds->ambiguous; source = source->next) {
+		struct multi_pack_index *m = get_multi_pack_index(source);
+		if (m)
+			unique_in_midx(m, ds);
+	}
+
 	for (p = get_packed_git(ds->repo); p && !ds->ambiguous;
 	     p = p->next)
 		unique_in_pack(p, ds);
@@ -793,11 +797,15 @@ static void find_abbrev_len_for_pack(struct packed_git *p,
 
 static void find_abbrev_len_packed(struct min_abbrev_data *mad)
 {
-	struct multi_pack_index *m;
 	struct packed_git *p;
 
-	for (m = get_multi_pack_index(mad->repo); m; m = m->next)
-		find_abbrev_len_for_midx(m, mad);
+	odb_prepare_alternates(mad->repo->objects);
+	for (struct odb_source *source = mad->repo->objects->sources; source; source = source->next) {
+		struct multi_pack_index *m = get_multi_pack_index(source);
+		if (m)
+			find_abbrev_len_for_midx(m, mad);
+	}
+
 	for (p = get_packed_git(mad->repo); p; p = p->next)
 		find_abbrev_len_for_pack(p, mad);
 }
diff --git a/odb.h b/odb.h
index e922f256802a0c..09177bf430dc38 100644
--- a/odb.h
+++ b/odb.h
@@ -13,6 +13,7 @@ struct oidmap;
 struct oidtree;
 struct strbuf;
 struct repository;
+struct multi_pack_index;
 
 /*
  * Compute the exact path an alternate is at and returns it. In case of
@@ -55,6 +56,13 @@ struct odb_source {
 	/* Map between object IDs for loose objects. */
 	struct loose_object_map *loose_map;
 
+	/*
+	 * private data
+	 *
+	 * should only be accessed directly by packfile.c and midx.c
+	 */
+	struct multi_pack_index *midx;
+
 	/*
 	 * This is a temporary object store created by the tmp_objdir
 	 * facility. Disable ref updates since the objects in the store
@@ -75,7 +83,6 @@ struct odb_source {
 };
 
 struct packed_git;
-struct multi_pack_index;
 struct cached_object_entry;
 
 /*
@@ -116,13 +123,6 @@ struct object_database {
 	struct commit_graph *commit_graph;
 	unsigned commit_graph_attempted : 1; /* if loading has been attempted */
 
-	/*
-	 * private data
-	 *
-	 * should only be accessed directly by packfile.c and midx.c
-	 */
-	struct multi_pack_index *multi_pack_index;
-
 	/*
 	 * private data
 	 *
diff --git a/pack-bitmap.c b/pack-bitmap.c
index 15cf51166ea9fb..d14421ee204414 100644
--- a/pack-bitmap.c
+++ b/pack-bitmap.c
@@ -683,13 +683,15 @@ static int open_pack_bitmap(struct repository *r,
 static int open_midx_bitmap(struct repository *r,
 			    struct bitmap_index *bitmap_git)
 {
+	struct odb_source *source;
 	int ret = -1;
-	struct multi_pack_index *midx;
 
 	assert(!bitmap_git->map);
 
-	for (midx = get_multi_pack_index(r); midx; midx = midx->next) {
-		if (!open_midx_bitmap_1(bitmap_git, midx))
+	odb_prepare_alternates(r->objects);
+	for (source = r->objects->sources; source; source = source->next) {
+		struct multi_pack_index *midx = get_multi_pack_index(source);
+		if (midx && !open_midx_bitmap_1(bitmap_git, midx))
 			ret = 0;
 	}
 	return ret;
@@ -3345,11 +3347,18 @@ static int verify_bitmap_file(const struct git_hash_algo *algop,
 
 int verify_bitmap_files(struct repository *r)
 {
+	struct odb_source *source;
 	int res = 0;
 
-	for (struct multi_pack_index *m = get_multi_pack_index(r);
-	     m; m = m->next) {
-		char *midx_bitmap_name = midx_bitmap_filename(m);
+	odb_prepare_alternates(r->objects);
+	for (source = r->objects->sources; source; source = source->next) {
+		struct multi_pack_index *m = get_multi_pack_index(source);
+		char *midx_bitmap_name;
+
+		if (!m)
+			continue;
+
+		midx_bitmap_name = midx_bitmap_filename(m);
 		res |= verify_bitmap_file(r->hash_algo, midx_bitmap_name);
 		free(midx_bitmap_name);
 	}
diff --git a/packfile.c b/packfile.c
index af9ccfdba624ab..5d73932f50ce68 100644
--- a/packfile.c
+++ b/packfile.c
@@ -361,6 +361,7 @@ void close_pack(struct packed_git *p)
 
 void close_object_store(struct object_database *o)
 {
+	struct odb_source *source;
 	struct packed_git *p;
 
 	for (p = o->packed_git; p; p = p->next)
@@ -369,9 +370,10 @@ void close_object_store(struct object_database *o)
 		else
 			close_pack(p);
 
-	if (o->multi_pack_index) {
-		close_midx(o->multi_pack_index);
-		o->multi_pack_index = NULL;
+	for (source = o->sources; source; source = source->next) {
+		if (source->midx)
+			close_midx(source->midx);
+		source->midx = NULL;
 	}
 
 	close_commit_graph(o);
@@ -933,22 +935,17 @@ static void prepare_pack(const char *full_name, size_t full_name_len,
 		report_garbage(PACKDIR_FILE_GARBAGE, full_name);
 }
 
-static void prepare_packed_git_one(struct repository *r, char *objdir, int local)
+static void prepare_packed_git_one(struct odb_source *source, int local)
 {
-	struct prepare_pack_data data;
 	struct string_list garbage = STRING_LIST_INIT_DUP;
+	struct prepare_pack_data data = {
+		.m = source->midx,
+		.r = source->odb->repo,
+		.garbage = &garbage,
+		.local = local,
+	};
 
-	data.m = r->objects->multi_pack_index;
-
-	/* look for the multi-pack-index for this object directory */
-	while (data.m && strcmp(data.m->object_dir, objdir))
-		data.m = data.m->next;
-
-	data.r = r;
-	data.garbage = &garbage;
-	data.local = local;
-
-	for_each_file_in_pack_dir(objdir, prepare_pack, &data);
+	for_each_file_in_pack_dir(source->path, prepare_pack, &data);
 
 	report_pack_garbage(data.garbage);
 	string_list_clear(data.garbage, 0);
@@ -965,14 +962,18 @@ static void prepare_packed_git(struct repository *r);
 unsigned long repo_approximate_object_count(struct repository *r)
 {
 	if (!r->objects->approximate_object_count_valid) {
-		unsigned long count;
-		struct multi_pack_index *m;
+		struct odb_source *source;
+		unsigned long count = 0;
 		struct packed_git *p;
 
 		prepare_packed_git(r);
-		count = 0;
-		for (m = get_multi_pack_index(r); m; m = m->next)
-			count += m->num_objects;
+
+		for (source = r->objects->sources; source; source = source->next) {
+			struct multi_pack_index *m = get_multi_pack_index(source);
+			if (m)
+				count += m->num_objects;
+		}
+
 		for (p = r->objects->packed_git; p; p = p->next) {
 			if (open_pack_index(p))
 				continue;
@@ -1037,8 +1038,8 @@ static void prepare_packed_git(struct repository *r)
 	odb_prepare_alternates(r->objects);
 	for (source = r->objects->sources; source; source = source->next) {
 		int local = (source == r->objects->sources);
-		prepare_multi_pack_index_one(r, source->path, local);
-		prepare_packed_git_one(r, source->path, local);
+		prepare_multi_pack_index_one(source, local);
+		prepare_packed_git_one(source, local);
 	}
 	rearrange_packed_git(r);
 
@@ -1076,31 +1077,21 @@ struct packed_git *get_packed_git(struct repository *r)
 	return r->objects->packed_git;
 }
 
-struct multi_pack_index *get_multi_pack_index(struct repository *r)
+struct multi_pack_index *get_multi_pack_index(struct odb_source *source)
 {
-	prepare_packed_git(r);
-	return r->objects->multi_pack_index;
-}
-
-struct multi_pack_index *get_local_multi_pack_index(struct repository *r)
-{
-	struct multi_pack_index *m = get_multi_pack_index(r);
-
-	/* no need to iterate; we always put the local one first (if any) */
-	if (m && m->local)
-		return m;
-
-	return NULL;
+	prepare_packed_git(source->odb->repo);
+	return source->midx;
 }
 
 struct packed_git *get_all_packs(struct repository *r)
 {
-	struct multi_pack_index *m;
-
 	prepare_packed_git(r);
-	for (m = r->objects->multi_pack_index; m; m = m->next) {
-		uint32_t i;
-		for (i = 0; i < m->num_packs + m->num_packs_in_base; i++)
+
+	for (struct odb_source *source = r->objects->sources; source; source = source->next) {
+		struct multi_pack_index *m = source->midx;
+		if (!m)
+			continue;
+		for (uint32_t i = 0; i < m->num_packs + m->num_packs_in_base; i++)
 			prepare_midx_pack(r, m, i);
 	}
 
@@ -2083,16 +2074,15 @@ static int fill_pack_entry(const struct object_id *oid,
 int find_pack_entry(struct repository *r, const struct object_id *oid, struct pack_entry *e)
 {
 	struct list_head *pos;
-	struct multi_pack_index *m;
 
 	prepare_packed_git(r);
-	if (!r->objects->packed_git && !r->objects->multi_pack_index)
-		return 0;
 
-	for (m = r->objects->multi_pack_index; m; m = m->next) {
-		if (fill_midx_entry(r, oid, e, m))
+	for (struct odb_source *source = r->objects->sources; source; source = source->next)
+		if (source->midx && fill_midx_entry(r, oid, e, source->midx))
 			return 1;
-	}
+
+	if (!r->objects->packed_git)
+		return 0;
 
 	list_for_each(pos, &r->objects->packed_git_mru) {
 		struct packed_git *p = list_entry(pos, struct packed_git, mru);
diff --git a/packfile.h b/packfile.h
index 53c3b7d3b43cba..f16753f2a9bb4c 100644
--- a/packfile.h
+++ b/packfile.h
@@ -147,8 +147,7 @@ void install_packed_git(struct repository *r, struct packed_git *pack);
 
 struct packed_git *get_packed_git(struct repository *r);
 struct list_head *get_packed_git_mru(struct repository *r);
-struct multi_pack_index *get_multi_pack_index(struct repository *r);
-struct multi_pack_index *get_local_multi_pack_index(struct repository *r);
+struct multi_pack_index *get_multi_pack_index(struct odb_source *source);
 struct packed_git *get_all_packs(struct repository *r);
 
 /*
diff --git a/ref-filter.c b/ref-filter.c
index f9f2c512a8c6e0..d5a146de87f328 100644
--- a/ref-filter.c
+++ b/ref-filter.c
@@ -2683,6 +2683,41 @@ static int filter_exclude_match(struct ref_filter *filter, const char *refname)
 	return match_pattern(filter->exclude.v, refname, filter->ignore_case);
 }
 
+/*
+ * We need to seek to the reference right after a given marker but excluding any
+ * matching references. So we seek to the lexicographically next reference.
+ */
+static int start_ref_iterator_after(struct ref_iterator *iter, const char *marker)
+{
+	struct strbuf sb = STRBUF_INIT;
+	int ret;
+
+	strbuf_addstr(&sb, marker);
+	strbuf_addch(&sb, 1);
+
+	ret = ref_iterator_seek(iter, sb.buf, 0);
+
+	strbuf_release(&sb);
+	return ret;
+}
+
+static int for_each_fullref_with_seek(struct ref_filter *filter, each_ref_fn cb,
+				       void *cb_data, unsigned int flags)
+{
+	struct ref_iterator *iter;
+	int ret = 0;
+
+	iter = refs_ref_iterator_begin(get_main_ref_store(the_repository), "",
+				       NULL, 0, flags);
+	if (filter->start_after)
+		ret = start_ref_iterator_after(iter, filter->start_after);
+
+	if (ret)
+		return ret;
+
+	return do_for_each_ref_iterator(iter, cb, cb_data);
+}
+
 /*
  * This is the same as for_each_fullref_in(), but it tries to iterate
  * only over the patterns we'll care about. Note that it _doesn't_ do a full
@@ -2694,8 +2729,8 @@ static int for_each_fullref_in_pattern(struct ref_filter *filter,
 {
 	if (filter->kind & FILTER_REFS_ROOT_REFS) {
 		/* In this case, we want to print all refs including root refs. */
-		return refs_for_each_include_root_refs(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
-						       cb, cb_data);
+		return for_each_fullref_with_seek(filter, cb, cb_data,
+						  DO_FOR_EACH_INCLUDE_ROOT_REFS);
 	}
 
 	if (!filter->match_as_path) {
@@ -2704,8 +2739,7 @@ static int for_each_fullref_in_pattern(struct ref_filter *filter,
 		 * prefixes like "refs/heads/" etc. are stripped off,
 		 * so we have to look at everything:
 		 */
-		return refs_for_each_fullref_in(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
-						"", NULL, cb, cb_data);
+		return for_each_fullref_with_seek(filter, cb, cb_data, 0);
 	}
 
 	if (filter->ignore_case) {
@@ -2714,14 +2748,12 @@ static int for_each_fullref_in_pattern(struct ref_filter *filter,
 		 * so just return everything and let the caller
 		 * sort it out.
 		 */
-		return refs_for_each_fullref_in(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
-						"", NULL, cb, cb_data);
+		return for_each_fullref_with_seek(filter, cb, cb_data, 0);
 	}
 
 	if (!filter->name_patterns[0]) {
 		/* no patterns; we have to look at everything */
-		return refs_for_each_fullref_in(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
-						 "", filter->exclude.v, cb, cb_data);
+		return for_each_fullref_with_seek(filter, cb, cb_data, 0);
 	}
 
 	return refs_for_each_fullref_in_prefixes(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
@@ -3189,6 +3221,7 @@ void filter_is_base(struct repository *r,
 
 static int do_filter_refs(struct ref_filter *filter, unsigned int type, each_ref_fn fn, void *cb_data)
 {
+	const char *prefix = NULL;
 	int ret = 0;
 
 	filter->kind = type & FILTER_REFS_KIND_MASK;
@@ -3199,38 +3232,47 @@ static int do_filter_refs(struct ref_filter *filter, unsigned int type, each_ref
 	/*  Simple per-ref filtering */
 	if (!filter->kind)
 		die("filter_refs: invalid type");
-	else {
-		/*
-		 * For common cases where we need only branches or remotes or tags,
-		 * we only iterate through those refs. If a mix of refs is needed,
-		 * we iterate over all refs and filter out required refs with the help
-		 * of filter_ref_kind().
-		 */
-		if (filter->kind == FILTER_REFS_BRANCHES)
-			ret = refs_for_each_fullref_in(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
-						       "refs/heads/", NULL,
-						       fn, cb_data);
-		else if (filter->kind == FILTER_REFS_REMOTES)
-			ret = refs_for_each_fullref_in(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
-						       "refs/remotes/", NULL,
-						       fn, cb_data);
-		else if (filter->kind == FILTER_REFS_TAGS)
-			ret = refs_for_each_fullref_in(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
-						       "refs/tags/", NULL, fn,
-						       cb_data);
-		else if (filter->kind & FILTER_REFS_REGULAR)
-			ret = for_each_fullref_in_pattern(filter, fn, cb_data);
 
-		/*
-		 * When printing all ref types, HEAD is already included,
-		 * so we don't want to print HEAD again.
-		 */
-		if (!ret && !(filter->kind & FILTER_REFS_ROOT_REFS) &&
-		    (filter->kind & FILTER_REFS_DETACHED_HEAD))
-			refs_head_ref(get_main_ref_store(the_repository), fn,
-				      cb_data);
+	/*
+	 * For common cases where we need only branches or remotes or tags,
+	 * we only iterate through those refs. If a mix of refs is needed,
+	 * we iterate over all refs and filter out required refs with the help
+	 * of filter_ref_kind().
+	 */
+	if (filter->kind == FILTER_REFS_BRANCHES)
+		prefix = "refs/heads/";
+	else if (filter->kind == FILTER_REFS_REMOTES)
+		prefix = "refs/remotes/";
+	else if (filter->kind == FILTER_REFS_TAGS)
+		prefix = "refs/tags/";
+
+	if (prefix) {
+		struct ref_iterator *iter;
+
+		iter = refs_ref_iterator_begin(get_main_ref_store(the_repository),
+					       "", NULL, 0, 0);
+
+		if (filter->start_after)
+			ret = start_ref_iterator_after(iter, filter->start_after);
+		else if (prefix)
+			ret = ref_iterator_seek(iter, prefix, 1);
+
+		if (!ret)
+			ret = do_for_each_ref_iterator(iter, fn, cb_data);
+	} else if (filter->kind & FILTER_REFS_REGULAR) {
+		ret = for_each_fullref_in_pattern(filter, fn, cb_data);
 	}
 
+	/*
+	 * When printing all ref types, HEAD is already included,
+	 * so we don't want to print HEAD again.
+	 */
+	if (!ret && !(filter->kind & FILTER_REFS_ROOT_REFS) &&
+	    (filter->kind & FILTER_REFS_DETACHED_HEAD))
+		refs_head_ref(get_main_ref_store(the_repository), fn,
+			      cb_data);
+
+
 	clear_contains_cache(&filter->internal.contains_cache);
 	clear_contains_cache(&filter->internal.no_contains_cache);
 
diff --git a/ref-filter.h b/ref-filter.h
index c98c4fbd4c150d..f22ca94b49df7c 100644
--- a/ref-filter.h
+++ b/ref-filter.h
@@ -64,6 +64,7 @@ struct ref_array {
 
 struct ref_filter {
 	const char **name_patterns;
+	const char *start_after;
 	struct strvec exclude;
 	struct oid_array points_at;
 	struct commit_list *with_commit;
diff --git a/refs.c b/refs.c
index 73913b6627be95..9b0806d262f71f 100644
--- a/refs.c
+++ b/refs.c
@@ -2657,12 +2657,12 @@ enum ref_transaction_error refs_verify_refnames_available(struct ref_store *refs
 		if (!initial_transaction) {
 			int ok;
 
-			if (!iter) {
+			if (!iter)
 				iter = refs_ref_iterator_begin(refs, dirname.buf, NULL, 0,
 							       DO_FOR_EACH_INCLUDE_BROKEN);
-			} else if (ref_iterator_seek(iter, dirname.buf) < 0) {
+			else if (ref_iterator_seek(iter, dirname.buf,
+						   REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX) < 0)
 				goto cleanup;
-			}
 
 			while ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) == ITER_OK) {
 				if (skip &&
diff --git a/refs.h b/refs.h
index efa182c6a144ca..eedbb599c52aac 100644
--- a/refs.h
+++ b/refs.h
@@ -1194,4 +1194,159 @@ int repo_migrate_ref_storage_format(struct repository *repo,
 				    unsigned int flags,
 				    struct strbuf *err);
 
+/*
+ * Reference iterators
+ *
+ * A reference iterator encapsulates the state of an in-progress
+ * iteration over references. Create an instance of `struct
+ * ref_iterator` via one of the functions in this module.
+ *
+ * A freshly-created ref_iterator doesn't yet point at a reference. To
+ * advance the iterator, call ref_iterator_advance(). If successful,
+ * this sets the iterator's refname, oid, and flags fields to describe
+ * the next reference and returns ITER_OK. The data pointed at by
+ * refname and oid belong to the iterator; if you want to retain them
+ * after calling ref_iterator_advance() again or calling
+ * ref_iterator_free(), you must make a copy. When the iteration has
+ * been exhausted, ref_iterator_advance() releases any resources
+ * associated with the iteration, frees the ref_iterator object, and
+ * returns ITER_DONE. If you want to abort the iteration early, call
+ * ref_iterator_free(), which also frees the ref_iterator object and
+ * any associated resources. If there was an internal error advancing
+ * to the next entry, ref_iterator_advance() aborts the iteration,
+ * frees the ref_iterator, and returns ITER_ERROR.
+ *
+ * The reference currently being looked at can be peeled by calling
+ * ref_iterator_peel(). This function is often faster than peel_ref(),
+ * so it should be preferred when iterating over references.
+ *
+ * Putting it all together, a typical iteration looks like this:
+ *
+ *     int ok;
+ *     struct ref_iterator *iter = ...;
+ *
+ *     while ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) == ITER_OK) {
+ *             if (want_to_stop_iteration()) {
+ *                     ok = ITER_DONE;
+ *                     break;
+ *             }
+ *
+ *             // Access information about the current reference:
+ *             if (!(iter->flags & REF_ISSYMREF))
+ *                     printf("%s is %s\n", iter->refname, oid_to_hex(iter->oid));
+ *
+ *             // If you need to peel the reference:
+ *             ref_iterator_peel(iter, &oid);
+ *     }
+ *
+ *     if (ok != ITER_DONE)
+ *             handle_error();
+ *     ref_iterator_free(iter);
+ */
+struct ref_iterator;
+
+/*
+ * These flags are passed to refs_ref_iterator_begin() (and do_for_each_ref(),
+ * which feeds it).
+ */
+enum do_for_each_ref_flags {
+	/*
+	 * Include broken references in a do_for_each_ref*() iteration, which
+	 * would normally be omitted. This includes both refs that point to
+	 * missing objects (a true repository corruption), ones with illegal
+	 * names (which we prefer not to expose to callers), as well as
+	 * dangling symbolic refs (i.e., those that point to a non-existent
+	 * ref; this is not a corruption, but as they have no valid oid, we
+	 * omit them from normal iteration results).
+	 */
+	DO_FOR_EACH_INCLUDE_BROKEN = (1 << 0),
+
+	/*
+	 * Only include per-worktree refs in a do_for_each_ref*() iteration.
+	 * Normally this will be used with a files ref_store, since that's
+	 * where all reference backends will presumably store their
+	 * per-worktree refs.
+	 */
+	DO_FOR_EACH_PER_WORKTREE_ONLY = (1 << 1),
+
+	/*
+	 * Omit dangling symrefs from output; this only has an effect with
+	 * INCLUDE_BROKEN, since they are otherwise not included at all.
+	 */
+	DO_FOR_EACH_OMIT_DANGLING_SYMREFS = (1 << 2),
+
+	/*
+	 * Include root refs i.e. HEAD and pseudorefs along with the regular
+	 * refs.
+	 */
+	DO_FOR_EACH_INCLUDE_ROOT_REFS = (1 << 3),
+};
+
+/*
+ * Return an iterator that goes over each reference in `refs` for
+ * which the refname begins with prefix. If trim is non-zero, then
+ * trim that many characters off the beginning of each refname.
+ * The output is ordered by refname.
+ */
+struct ref_iterator *refs_ref_iterator_begin(
+	struct ref_store *refs,
+	const char *prefix, const char **exclude_patterns,
+	int trim, enum do_for_each_ref_flags flags);
+
+/*
+ * Advance the iterator to the first or next item and return ITER_OK.
+ * If the iteration is exhausted, free the resources associated with
+ * the ref_iterator and return ITER_DONE. On errors, free the iterator
+ * resources and return ITER_ERROR. It is a bug to use ref_iterator or
+ * call this function again after it has returned ITER_DONE or
+ * ITER_ERROR.
+ */
+int ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
+
+enum ref_iterator_seek_flag {
+	/*
+	 * When the REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX flag is set, the iterator's prefix is
+	 * updated to match the provided string, affecting all subsequent iterations. If
+	 * not, the iterator seeks to the specified reference and clears any previously
+	 * set prefix.
+	 */
+	REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX = (1 << 0),
+};
+
+/*
+ * Seek the iterator to the first reference matching the given seek string.
+ * The seek string is matched as a literal string, without regard for path
+ * separators. If seek is NULL or the empty string, seek the iterator to the
+ * first reference again.
+ *
+ * This function is expected to behave as if a new ref iterator has been
+ * created, but allows reuse of existing iterators for optimization.
+ *
+ * Returns 0 on success, a negative error code otherwise.
+ */
+int ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator, const char *refname,
+		      unsigned int flags);
+
+/*
+ * If possible, peel the reference currently being viewed by the
+ * iterator. Return 0 on success.
+ */
+int ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+		      struct object_id *peeled);
+
+/* Free the reference iterator and any associated resources. */
+void ref_iterator_free(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
+
+/*
+ * The common backend for the for_each_*ref* functions. Call fn for
+ * each reference in iter. If the iterator itself ever returns
+ * ITER_ERROR, return -1. If fn ever returns a non-zero value, stop
+ * the iteration and return that value. Otherwise, return 0. In any
+ * case, free the iterator when done. This function is basically an
+ * adapter between the callback style of reference iteration and the
+ * iterator style.
+ */
+int do_for_each_ref_iterator(struct ref_iterator *iter,
+			     each_ref_fn fn, void *cb_data);
+
 #endif /* REFS_H */
diff --git a/refs/debug.c b/refs/debug.c
index 485e3079d7a3a7..da300efaf30973 100644
--- a/refs/debug.c
+++ b/refs/debug.c
@@ -170,12 +170,13 @@ static int debug_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 }
 
 static int debug_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-				   const char *prefix)
+				   const char *refname, unsigned int flags)
 {
 	struct debug_ref_iterator *diter =
 		(struct debug_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-	int res = diter->iter->vtable->seek(diter->iter, prefix);
-	trace_printf_key(&trace_refs, "iterator_seek: %s: %d\n", prefix ? prefix : "", res);
+	int res = diter->iter->vtable->seek(diter->iter, refname, flags);
+	trace_printf_key(&trace_refs, "iterator_seek: %s flags: %d: %d\n",
+			 refname ? refname : "", flags, res);
 	return res;
 }
 
diff --git a/refs/files-backend.c b/refs/files-backend.c
index 89ae4517a97558..088b52c740b9ff 100644
--- a/refs/files-backend.c
+++ b/refs/files-backend.c
@@ -929,11 +929,11 @@ static int files_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 }
 
 static int files_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-				   const char *prefix)
+				   const char *refname, unsigned int flags)
 {
 	struct files_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct files_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-	return ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter0, prefix);
+	return ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter0, refname, flags);
 }
 
 static int files_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
@@ -2316,7 +2316,8 @@ static int files_reflog_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 }
 
 static int files_reflog_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
-				      const char *prefix UNUSED)
+				      const char *refname UNUSED,
+				      unsigned int flags UNUSED)
 {
 	BUG("ref_iterator_seek() called for reflog_iterator");
 }
diff --git a/refs/iterator.c b/refs/iterator.c
index 766d96e795c9b9..17ef841d8a3013 100644
--- a/refs/iterator.c
+++ b/refs/iterator.c
@@ -15,10 +15,10 @@ int ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 	return ref_iterator->vtable->advance(ref_iterator);
 }
 
-int ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-		      const char *prefix)
+int ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator, const char *refname,
+		      unsigned int flags)
 {
-	return ref_iterator->vtable->seek(ref_iterator, prefix);
+	return ref_iterator->vtable->seek(ref_iterator, refname, flags);
 }
 
 int ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
@@ -57,7 +57,8 @@ static int empty_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED)
 }
 
 static int empty_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
-				   const char *prefix UNUSED)
+				   const char *refname UNUSED,
+				   unsigned int flags UNUSED)
 {
 	return 0;
 }
@@ -224,7 +225,7 @@ static int merge_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 }
 
 static int merge_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-				   const char *prefix)
+				   const char *refname, unsigned int flags)
 {
 	struct merge_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct merge_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
@@ -234,11 +235,11 @@ static int merge_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 	iter->iter0 = iter->iter0_owned;
 	iter->iter1 = iter->iter1_owned;
 
-	ret = ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter0, prefix);
+	ret = ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter0, refname, flags);
 	if (ret < 0)
 		return ret;
 
-	ret = ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter1, prefix);
+	ret = ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter1, refname, flags);
 	if (ret < 0)
 		return ret;
 
@@ -407,13 +408,16 @@ static int prefix_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 }
 
 static int prefix_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-				    const char *prefix)
+				    const char *refname, unsigned int flags)
 {
 	struct prefix_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct prefix_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
-	free(iter->prefix);
-	iter->prefix = xstrdup_or_null(prefix);
-	return ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter0, prefix);
+
+	if (flags & REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX) {
+		free(iter->prefix);
+		iter->prefix = xstrdup_or_null(refname);
+	}
+	return ref_iterator_seek(iter->iter0, refname, flags);
 }
 
 static int prefix_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
diff --git a/refs/packed-backend.c b/refs/packed-backend.c
index 7fd73a0e6da3b5..5fa4ae6655ea0f 100644
--- a/refs/packed-backend.c
+++ b/refs/packed-backend.c
@@ -1004,19 +1004,23 @@ static int packed_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 }
 
 static int packed_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-				    const char *prefix)
+				    const char *refname, unsigned int flags)
 {
 	struct packed_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct packed_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
 	const char *start;
 
-	if (prefix && *prefix)
-		start = find_reference_location(iter->snapshot, prefix, 0);
+	if (refname && *refname)
+		start = find_reference_location(iter->snapshot, refname, 0);
 	else
 		start = iter->snapshot->start;
 
-	free(iter->prefix);
-	iter->prefix = xstrdup_or_null(prefix);
+	/* Unset any previously set prefix */
+	FREE_AND_NULL(iter->prefix);
+
+	if (flags & REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX)
+		iter->prefix = xstrdup_or_null(refname);
+
 	iter->pos = start;
 	iter->eof = iter->snapshot->eof;
 
@@ -1194,7 +1198,8 @@ static struct ref_iterator *packed_ref_iterator_begin(
 	iter->repo = ref_store->repo;
 	iter->flags = flags;
 
-	if (packed_ref_iterator_seek(&iter->base, prefix) < 0) {
+	if (packed_ref_iterator_seek(&iter->base, prefix,
+				     REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX) < 0) {
 		ref_iterator_free(&iter->base);
 		return NULL;
 	}
diff --git a/refs/ref-cache.c b/refs/ref-cache.c
index c1f1bab1d502dc..ceef3a20088267 100644
--- a/refs/ref-cache.c
+++ b/refs/ref-cache.c
@@ -194,20 +194,6 @@ static struct ref_dir *find_containing_dir(struct ref_dir *dir,
 	return dir;
 }
 
-struct ref_entry *find_ref_entry(struct ref_dir *dir, const char *refname)
-{
-	int entry_index;
-	struct ref_entry *entry;
-	dir = find_containing_dir(dir, refname);
-	if (!dir)
-		return NULL;
-	entry_index = search_ref_dir(dir, refname, strlen(refname));
-	if (entry_index == -1)
-		return NULL;
-	entry = dir->entries[entry_index];
-	return (entry->flag & REF_DIR) ? NULL : entry;
-}
-
 /*
  * Emit a warning and return true iff ref1 and ref2 have the same name
  * and the same oid. Die if they have the same name but different
@@ -448,11 +434,9 @@ static int cache_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 	}
 }
 
-static int cache_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-				   const char *prefix)
+static int cache_ref_iterator_set_prefix(struct cache_ref_iterator *iter,
+					 const char *prefix)
 {
-	struct cache_ref_iterator *iter =
-		(struct cache_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
 	struct cache_ref_iterator_level *level;
 	struct ref_dir *dir;
 
@@ -483,6 +467,83 @@ static int cache_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 	return 0;
 }
 
+static int cache_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
+				   const char *refname, unsigned int flags)
+{
+	struct cache_ref_iterator *iter =
+		(struct cache_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
+
+	if (flags & REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX) {
+		return cache_ref_iterator_set_prefix(iter, refname);
+	} else if (refname && *refname) {
+		struct cache_ref_iterator_level *level;
+		const char *slash = refname;
+		struct ref_dir *dir;
+
+		dir = get_ref_dir(iter->cache->root);
+
+		if (iter->prime_dir)
+			prime_ref_dir(dir, refname);
+
+		iter->levels_nr = 1;
+		level = &iter->levels[0];
+		level->index = -1;
+		level->dir = dir;
+
+		/* Unset any previously set prefix */
+		FREE_AND_NULL(iter->prefix);
+
+		/*
+		 * Breakdown the provided seek path and assign the correct
+		 * indexing to each level as needed.
+		 */
+		do {
+			int len, idx;
+			int cmp = 0;
+
+			sort_ref_dir(dir);
+
+			slash = strchr(slash, '/');
+			len = slash ? slash - refname : (int)strlen(refname);
+
+			for (idx = 0; idx < dir->nr; idx++) {
+				cmp = strncmp(refname, dir->entries[idx]->name, len);
+				if (cmp <= 0)
+					break;
+			}
+			/* don't overflow the index */
+			idx = idx >= dir->nr ? dir->nr - 1 : idx;
+
+			if (slash)
+				slash = slash + 1;
+
+			level->index = idx;
+			if (dir->entries[idx]->flag & REF_DIR) {
+				/* push down a level */
+				dir = get_ref_dir(dir->entries[idx]);
+
+				ALLOC_GROW(iter->levels, iter->levels_nr + 1,
+					   iter->levels_alloc);
+				level = &iter->levels[iter->levels_nr++];
+				level->dir = dir;
+				level->index = -1;
+				level->prefix_state = PREFIX_CONTAINS_DIR;
+			} else {
+				/* reduce the index so the leaf node is iterated over */
+				if (cmp <= 0 && !slash)
+					level->index = idx - 1;
+				/*
+				 * while the seek path may not be exhausted, our
+				 * match is exhausted at a leaf node.
+				 */
+				break;
+			}
+		} while (slash);
+	}
+
+	return 0;
+}
+
 static int cache_ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
 				   struct object_id *peeled)
 {
@@ -523,7 +584,8 @@ struct ref_iterator *cache_ref_iterator_begin(struct ref_cache *cache,
 	iter->cache = cache;
 	iter->prime_dir = prime_dir;
 
-	if (cache_ref_iterator_seek(&iter->base, prefix) < 0) {
+	if (cache_ref_iterator_seek(&iter->base, prefix,
+				    REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX) < 0) {
 		ref_iterator_free(&iter->base);
 		return NULL;
 	}
diff --git a/refs/ref-cache.h b/refs/ref-cache.h
index 5f04e518c3796d..f635d2d82436de 100644
--- a/refs/ref-cache.h
+++ b/refs/ref-cache.h
@@ -201,13 +201,6 @@ void free_ref_cache(struct ref_cache *cache);
  */
 void add_entry_to_dir(struct ref_dir *dir, struct ref_entry *entry);
 
-/*
- * Find the value entry with the given name in dir, sorting ref_dirs
- * and recursing into subdirectories as necessary.  If the name is not
- * found or it corresponds to a directory entry, return NULL.
- */
-struct ref_entry *find_ref_entry(struct ref_dir *dir, const char *refname);
-
 /*
  * Start iterating over references in `cache`. If `prefix` is
  * specified, only include references whose names start with that
diff --git a/refs/refs-internal.h b/refs/refs-internal.h
index f86887085191e8..40c1c0f93dc8be 100644
--- a/refs/refs-internal.h
+++ b/refs/refs-internal.h
@@ -244,90 +244,8 @@ const char *find_descendant_ref(const char *dirname,
 #define SYMREF_MAXDEPTH 5
 
 /*
- * These flags are passed to refs_ref_iterator_begin() (and do_for_each_ref(),
- * which feeds it).
- */
-enum do_for_each_ref_flags {
-	/*
-	 * Include broken references in a do_for_each_ref*() iteration, which
-	 * would normally be omitted. This includes both refs that point to
-	 * missing objects (a true repository corruption), ones with illegal
-	 * names (which we prefer not to expose to callers), as well as
-	 * dangling symbolic refs (i.e., those that point to a non-existent
-	 * ref; this is not a corruption, but as they have no valid oid, we
-	 * omit them from normal iteration results).
-	 */
-	DO_FOR_EACH_INCLUDE_BROKEN = (1 << 0),
-
-	/*
-	 * Only include per-worktree refs in a do_for_each_ref*() iteration.
-	 * Normally this will be used with a files ref_store, since that's
-	 * where all reference backends will presumably store their
-	 * per-worktree refs.
-	 */
-	DO_FOR_EACH_PER_WORKTREE_ONLY = (1 << 1),
-
-	/*
-	 * Omit dangling symrefs from output; this only has an effect with
-	 * INCLUDE_BROKEN, since they are otherwise not included at all.
-	 */
-	DO_FOR_EACH_OMIT_DANGLING_SYMREFS = (1 << 2),
-
-	/*
-	 * Include root refs i.e. HEAD and pseudorefs along with the regular
-	 * refs.
-	 */
-	DO_FOR_EACH_INCLUDE_ROOT_REFS = (1 << 3),
-};
-
-/*
- * Reference iterators
- *
- * A reference iterator encapsulates the state of an in-progress
- * iteration over references. Create an instance of `struct
- * ref_iterator` via one of the functions in this module.
- *
- * A freshly-created ref_iterator doesn't yet point at a reference. To
- * advance the iterator, call ref_iterator_advance(). If successful,
- * this sets the iterator's refname, oid, and flags fields to describe
- * the next reference and returns ITER_OK. The data pointed at by
- * refname and oid belong to the iterator; if you want to retain them
- * after calling ref_iterator_advance() again or calling
- * ref_iterator_free(), you must make a copy. When the iteration has
- * been exhausted, ref_iterator_advance() releases any resources
- * associated with the iteration, frees the ref_iterator object, and
- * returns ITER_DONE. If you want to abort the iteration early, call
- * ref_iterator_free(), which also frees the ref_iterator object and
- * any associated resources. If there was an internal error advancing
- * to the next entry, ref_iterator_advance() aborts the iteration,
- * frees the ref_iterator, and returns ITER_ERROR.
- *
- * The reference currently being looked at can be peeled by calling
- * ref_iterator_peel(). This function is often faster than peel_ref(),
- * so it should be preferred when iterating over references.
- *
- * Putting it all together, a typical iteration looks like this:
- *
- *     int ok;
- *     struct ref_iterator *iter = ...;
- *
- *     while ((ok = ref_iterator_advance(iter)) == ITER_OK) {
- *             if (want_to_stop_iteration()) {
- *                     ok = ITER_DONE;
- *                     break;
- *             }
- *
- *             // Access information about the current reference:
- *             if (!(iter->flags & REF_ISSYMREF))
- *                     printf("%s is %s\n", iter->refname, oid_to_hex(iter->oid));
- *
- *             // If you need to peel the reference:
- *             ref_iterator_peel(iter, &oid);
- *     }
- *
- *     if (ok != ITER_DONE)
- *             handle_error();
- *     ref_iterator_free(iter);
+ * Data structure for holding a reference iterator. See refs.h for
+ * more details and usage instructions.
  */
 struct ref_iterator {
 	struct ref_iterator_vtable *vtable;
@@ -337,42 +255,6 @@ struct ref_iterator {
 	unsigned int flags;
 };
 
-/*
- * Advance the iterator to the first or next item and return ITER_OK.
- * If the iteration is exhausted, free the resources associated with
- * the ref_iterator and return ITER_DONE. On errors, free the iterator
- * resources and return ITER_ERROR. It is a bug to use ref_iterator or
- * call this function again after it has returned ITER_DONE or
- * ITER_ERROR.
- */
-int ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
-
-/*
- * Seek the iterator to the first reference with the given prefix.
- * The prefix is matched as a literal string, without regard for path
- * separators. If prefix is NULL or the empty string, seek the iterator to the
- * first reference again.
- *
- * This function is expected to behave as if a new ref iterator with the same
- * prefix had been created, but allows reuse of iterators and thus may allow
- * the backend to optimize. Parameters other than the prefix that have been
- * passed when creating the iterator will remain unchanged.
- *
- * Returns 0 on success, a negative error code otherwise.
- */
-int ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-		      const char *prefix);
-
-/*
- * If possible, peel the reference currently being viewed by the
- * iterator. Return 0 on success.
- */
-int ref_iterator_peel(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-		      struct object_id *peeled);
-
-/* Free the reference iterator and any associated resources. */
-void ref_iterator_free(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
-
 /*
  * An iterator over nothing (its first ref_iterator_advance() call
  * returns ITER_DONE).
@@ -384,17 +266,6 @@ struct ref_iterator *empty_ref_iterator_begin(void);
  */
 int is_empty_ref_iterator(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
 
-/*
- * Return an iterator that goes over each reference in `refs` for
- * which the refname begins with prefix. If trim is non-zero, then
- * trim that many characters off the beginning of each refname.
- * The output is ordered by refname.
- */
-struct ref_iterator *refs_ref_iterator_begin(
-		struct ref_store *refs,
-		const char *prefix, const char **exclude_patterns,
-		int trim, enum do_for_each_ref_flags flags);
-
 /*
  * A callback function used to instruct merge_ref_iterator how to
  * interleave the entries from iter0 and iter1. The function should
@@ -482,11 +353,12 @@ void base_ref_iterator_init(struct ref_iterator *iter,
 typedef int ref_iterator_advance_fn(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator);
 
 /*
- * Seek the iterator to the first reference matching the given prefix. Should
- * behave the same as if a new iterator was created with the same prefix.
+ * Seek the iterator to the first matching reference. If the
+ * REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX flag is set, it would behave the same as if a
+ * new iterator was created with the provided refname as prefix.
  */
 typedef int ref_iterator_seek_fn(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-				 const char *prefix);
+				 const char *refname, unsigned int flags);
 
 /*
  * Peels the current ref, returning 0 for success or -1 for failure.
@@ -520,18 +392,6 @@ struct ref_iterator_vtable {
  */
 extern struct ref_iterator *current_ref_iter;
 
-/*
- * The common backend for the for_each_*ref* functions. Call fn for
- * each reference in iter. If the iterator itself ever returns
- * ITER_ERROR, return -1. If fn ever returns a non-zero value, stop
- * the iteration and return that value. Otherwise, return 0. In any
- * case, free the iterator when done. This function is basically an
- * adapter between the callback style of reference iteration and the
- * iterator style.
- */
-int do_for_each_ref_iterator(struct ref_iterator *iter,
-			     each_ref_fn fn, void *cb_data);
-
 struct ref_store;
 
 /* refs backends */
diff --git a/refs/reftable-backend.c b/refs/reftable-backend.c
index 4c3817f4ec1a88..c3d48cc4120fe2 100644
--- a/refs/reftable-backend.c
+++ b/refs/reftable-backend.c
@@ -719,15 +719,20 @@ static int reftable_ref_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 }
 
 static int reftable_ref_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator,
-				      const char *prefix)
+				      const char *refname, unsigned int flags)
 {
 	struct reftable_ref_iterator *iter =
 		(struct reftable_ref_iterator *)ref_iterator;
 
-	free(iter->prefix);
-	iter->prefix = xstrdup_or_null(prefix);
-	iter->prefix_len = prefix ? strlen(prefix) : 0;
-	iter->err = reftable_iterator_seek_ref(&iter->iter, prefix);
+	/* Unset any previously set prefix */
+	FREE_AND_NULL(iter->prefix);
+	iter->prefix_len = 0;
+
+	if (flags & REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX) {
+		iter->prefix = xstrdup_or_null(refname);
+		iter->prefix_len = refname ? strlen(refname) : 0;
+	}
+	iter->err = reftable_iterator_seek_ref(&iter->iter, refname);
 
 	return iter->err;
 }
@@ -839,7 +844,8 @@ static struct reftable_ref_iterator *ref_iterator_for_stack(struct reftable_ref_
 	if (ret)
 		goto done;
 
-	ret = reftable_ref_iterator_seek(&iter->base, prefix);
+	ret = reftable_ref_iterator_seek(&iter->base, prefix,
+					 REF_ITERATOR_SEEK_SET_PREFIX);
 	if (ret)
 		goto done;
 
@@ -2042,7 +2048,8 @@ static int reftable_reflog_iterator_advance(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator)
 }
 
 static int reftable_reflog_iterator_seek(struct ref_iterator *ref_iterator UNUSED,
-					 const char *prefix UNUSED)
+					 const char *refname UNUSED,
+					 unsigned int flags UNUSED)
 {
 	BUG("reftable reflog iterator cannot be seeked");
 	return -1;
diff --git a/t/helper/test-delta.c b/t/helper/test-delta.c
index 6bc787a4743be0..52ea00c93718c7 100644
--- a/t/helper/test-delta.c
+++ b/t/helper/test-delta.c
@@ -11,6 +11,7 @@
 #include "test-tool.h"
 #include "git-compat-util.h"
 #include "delta.h"
+#include "strbuf.h"
 
 static const char usage_str[] =
 	"test-tool delta (-d|-p) <from_file> <data_file> <out_file>";
@@ -18,68 +19,38 @@ static const char usage_str[] =
 int cmd__delta(int argc, const char **argv)
 {
 	int fd;
-	struct stat st;
-	void *from_buf = NULL, *data_buf = NULL, *out_buf = NULL;
-	unsigned long from_size, data_size, out_size;
-	int ret = 1;
+	struct strbuf from = STRBUF_INIT, data = STRBUF_INIT;
+	char *out_buf;
+	unsigned long out_size;
 
-	if (argc != 5 || (strcmp(argv[1], "-d") && strcmp(argv[1], "-p"))) {
-		fprintf(stderr, "usage: %s\n", usage_str);
-		return 1;
-	}
+	if (argc != 5 || (strcmp(argv[1], "-d") && strcmp(argv[1], "-p")))
+		usage(usage_str);
 
-	fd = open(argv[2], O_RDONLY);
-	if (fd < 0 || fstat(fd, &st)) {
-		perror(argv[2]);
-		return 1;
-	}
-	from_size = st.st_size;
-	from_buf = xmalloc(from_size);
-	if (read_in_full(fd, from_buf, from_size) < 0) {
-		perror(argv[2]);
-		close(fd);
-		goto cleanup;
-	}
-	close(fd);
-
-	fd = open(argv[3], O_RDONLY);
-	if (fd < 0 || fstat(fd, &st)) {
-		perror(argv[3]);
-		goto cleanup;
-	}
-	data_size = st.st_size;
-	data_buf = xmalloc(data_size);
-	if (read_in_full(fd, data_buf, data_size) < 0) {
-		perror(argv[3]);
-		close(fd);
-		goto cleanup;
-	}
-	close(fd);
+	if (strbuf_read_file(&from, argv[2], 0) < 0)
+		die_errno("unable to read '%s'", argv[2]);
+	if (strbuf_read_file(&data, argv[3], 0) < 0)
+		die_errno("unable to read '%s'", argv[3]);
 
 	if (argv[1][1] == 'd')
-		out_buf = diff_delta(from_buf, from_size,
-				     data_buf, data_size,
+		out_buf = diff_delta(from.buf, from.len,
+				     data.buf, data.len,
 				     &out_size, 0);
 	else
-		out_buf = patch_delta(from_buf, from_size,
-				      data_buf, data_size,
+		out_buf = patch_delta(from.buf, from.len,
+				      data.buf, data.len,
 				      &out_size);
-	if (!out_buf) {
-		fprintf(stderr, "delta operation failed (returned NULL)\n");
-		goto cleanup;
-	}
+	if (!out_buf)
+		die("delta operation failed (returned NULL)");
 
-	fd = open (argv[4], O_WRONLY|O_CREAT|O_TRUNC, 0666);
-	if (fd < 0 || write_in_full(fd, out_buf, out_size) < 0) {
-		perror(argv[4]);
-		goto cleanup;
-	}
+	fd = xopen(argv[4], O_WRONLY|O_CREAT|O_TRUNC, 0666);
+	if (write_in_full(fd, out_buf, out_size) < 0)
+		die_errno("write(%s)", argv[4]);
+	if (close(fd) < 0)
+		die_errno("close(%s)", argv[4]);
 
-	ret = 0;
-cleanup:
-	free(from_buf);
-	free(data_buf);
+	strbuf_release(&from);
+	strbuf_release(&data);
 	free(out_buf);
 
-	return ret;
+	return 0;
 }
diff --git a/t/helper/test-truncate.c b/t/helper/test-truncate.c
index 3931deaec7dcda..2820cc7ed701cd 100644
--- a/t/helper/test-truncate.c
+++ b/t/helper/test-truncate.c
@@ -21,5 +21,8 @@ int cmd__truncate(int argc, const char **argv)
 
 	if (ftruncate(fd, (off_t) sz) < 0)
 		die_errno("failed to truncate file");
+
+	close(fd);
+
 	return 0;
 }
diff --git a/t/t3415-rebase-autosquash.sh b/t/t3415-rebase-autosquash.sh
index 26b42a526a1944..5d093e3a7ab257 100755
--- a/t/t3415-rebase-autosquash.sh
+++ b/t/t3415-rebase-autosquash.sh
@@ -394,6 +394,16 @@ test_expect_success 'autosquash with empty custom instructionFormat' '
 	)
 '
 
+test_expect_success 'autosquash with invalid custom instructionFormat' '
+	git reset --hard base &&
+	test_commit invalid-instructionFormat-test &&
+	(
+		test_must_fail git -c rebase.instructionFormat=blah \
+			rebase --autosquash  --force-rebase -i HEAD^ &&
+		test_path_is_missing .git/rebase-merge
+	)
+'
+
 set_backup_editor () {
 	write_script backup-editor.sh <<-\EOF
 	cp "$1" .git/backup-"$(basename "$1")"
diff --git a/t/t6302-for-each-ref-filter.sh b/t/t6302-for-each-ref-filter.sh
index bb02b86c163559..e097db6b02f0c4 100755
--- a/t/t6302-for-each-ref-filter.sh
+++ b/t/t6302-for-each-ref-filter.sh
@@ -541,4 +541,198 @@ test_expect_success 'validate worktree atom' '
 	test_cmp expect actual
 '
 
+test_expect_success 'start after with empty value' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	refs/heads/main
+	refs/heads/main_worktree
+	refs/heads/side
+	refs/odd/spot
+	refs/tags/annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-signed-tag
+	refs/tags/foo1.10
+	refs/tags/foo1.3
+	refs/tags/foo1.6
+	refs/tags/four
+	refs/tags/one
+	refs/tags/signed-tag
+	refs/tags/three
+	refs/tags/two
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after="" >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after a specific reference' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	refs/tags/annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-signed-tag
+	refs/tags/foo1.10
+	refs/tags/foo1.3
+	refs/tags/foo1.6
+	refs/tags/four
+	refs/tags/one
+	refs/tags/signed-tag
+	refs/tags/three
+	refs/tags/two
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/odd/spot >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after a specific reference with partial match' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	refs/odd/spot
+	refs/tags/annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-signed-tag
+	refs/tags/foo1.10
+	refs/tags/foo1.3
+	refs/tags/foo1.6
+	refs/tags/four
+	refs/tags/one
+	refs/tags/signed-tag
+	refs/tags/three
+	refs/tags/two
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/odd/sp >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after, just behind a specific reference' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	refs/odd/spot
+	refs/tags/annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-signed-tag
+	refs/tags/foo1.10
+	refs/tags/foo1.3
+	refs/tags/foo1.6
+	refs/tags/four
+	refs/tags/one
+	refs/tags/signed-tag
+	refs/tags/three
+	refs/tags/two
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/odd/parrot >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after with specific directory match' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	refs/odd/spot
+	refs/tags/annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-signed-tag
+	refs/tags/foo1.10
+	refs/tags/foo1.3
+	refs/tags/foo1.6
+	refs/tags/four
+	refs/tags/one
+	refs/tags/signed-tag
+	refs/tags/three
+	refs/tags/two
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/odd >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after with specific directory and trailing slash' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	refs/odd/spot
+	refs/tags/annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-signed-tag
+	refs/tags/foo1.10
+	refs/tags/foo1.3
+	refs/tags/foo1.6
+	refs/tags/four
+	refs/tags/one
+	refs/tags/signed-tag
+	refs/tags/three
+	refs/tags/two
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/odd/ >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after, just behind a specific directory' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	refs/odd/spot
+	refs/tags/annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-signed-tag
+	refs/tags/foo1.10
+	refs/tags/foo1.3
+	refs/tags/foo1.6
+	refs/tags/four
+	refs/tags/one
+	refs/tags/signed-tag
+	refs/tags/three
+	refs/tags/two
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/lost >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after, overflow specific reference length' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	refs/tags/annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-signed-tag
+	refs/tags/foo1.10
+	refs/tags/foo1.3
+	refs/tags/foo1.6
+	refs/tags/four
+	refs/tags/one
+	refs/tags/signed-tag
+	refs/tags/three
+	refs/tags/two
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/odd/spotnew >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after, overflow specific reference path' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	refs/tags/annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-annotated-tag
+	refs/tags/doubly-signed-tag
+	refs/tags/foo1.10
+	refs/tags/foo1.3
+	refs/tags/foo1.6
+	refs/tags/four
+	refs/tags/one
+	refs/tags/signed-tag
+	refs/tags/three
+	refs/tags/two
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/odd/spot/new >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after, last reference' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	EOF
+	git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/tags/two >actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after used with a pattern' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	fatal: cannot use --start-after with patterns
+	EOF
+	test_must_fail git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/odd/spot refs/tags 2>actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
+test_expect_success 'start after used with custom sort order' '
+	cat >expect <<-\EOF &&
+	fatal: cannot use --start-after with custom sort options
+	EOF
+	test_must_fail git for-each-ref --format="%(refname)" --start-after=refs/odd/spot --sort=author 2>actual &&
+	test_cmp expect actual
+'
+
 test_done