diff --git a/src/App.php b/src/App.php
index 4d135df..2e88c4e 100644
--- a/src/App.php
+++ b/src/App.php
@@ -37,8 +37,18 @@ class App
      */
     public function __construct(...$middleware)
     {
+        $container = new Container();
         $errorHandler = new ErrorHandler();
-        $this->router = new RouteHandler();
+        $this->router = new RouteHandler($container);
+
+        if ($middleware) {
+            $middleware = array_map(
+                function ($handler) use ($container) {
+                    return is_callable($handler) ? $handler : $container->callable($handler);
+                },
+                $middleware
+            );
+        }
 
         // new MiddlewareHandler([$accessLogHandler, $errorHandler, ...$middleware, $routeHandler])
         \array_unshift($middleware, $errorHandler);
diff --git a/src/Container.php b/src/Container.php
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..d3f91a6
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/Container.php
@@ -0,0 +1,132 @@
+<?php
+
+namespace FrameworkX;
+
+use Psr\Http\Message\ServerRequestInterface;
+
+/**
+ * @internal
+ */
+class Container
+{
+    /** @var array<class-string,object> */
+    private $container;
+
+    /**
+     * @param class-string $class
+     * @return callable
+     */
+    public function callable(string $class): callable
+    {
+        return function (ServerRequestInterface $request, callable $next = null) use ($class) {
+            // Check `$class` references a valid class name that can be autoloaded
+            if (!\class_exists($class, true) && !interface_exists($class, false) && !trait_exists($class, false)) {
+                throw new \BadMethodCallException('Request handler class ' . $class . ' not found');
+            }
+
+            try {
+                $handler = $this->load($class);
+            } catch (\Throwable $e) {
+                throw new \BadMethodCallException(
+                    'Request handler class ' . $class . ' failed to load: ' . $e->getMessage(),
+                    0,
+                    $e
+                );
+            }
+
+            // Check `$handler` references a class name that is callable, i.e. has an `__invoke()` method.
+            // This initial version is intentionally limited to checking the method name only.
+            // A follow-up version will likely use reflection to check request handler argument types.
+            if (!is_callable($handler)) {
+                throw new \BadMethodCallException('Request handler class "' . $class . '" has no public __invoke() method');
+            }
+
+            // invoke request handler as middleware handler or final controller
+            if ($next === null) {
+                return $handler($request);
+            }
+            return $handler($request, $next);
+        };
+    }
+
+    /**
+     * @param class-string $name
+     * @return object
+     * @throws \BadMethodCallException
+     */
+    private function load(string $name, int $depth = 64)
+    {
+        if (isset($this->container[$name])) {
+            return $this->container[$name];
+        }
+
+        // Check `$name` references a valid class name that can be autoloaded
+        if (!\class_exists($name, true) && !interface_exists($name, false) && !trait_exists($name, false)) {
+            throw new \BadMethodCallException('Class ' . $name . ' not found');
+        }
+
+        $class = new \ReflectionClass($name);
+        if (!$class->isInstantiable()) {
+            $modifier = 'class';
+            if ($class->isInterface()) {
+                $modifier = 'interface';
+            } elseif ($class->isAbstract()) {
+                $modifier = 'abstract class';
+            } elseif ($class->isTrait()) {
+                $modifier = 'trait';
+            }
+            throw new \BadMethodCallException('Cannot instantiate ' . $modifier . ' '. $name);
+        }
+
+        // build list of constructor parameters based on parameter types
+        $params = [];
+        $ctor = $class->getConstructor();
+        assert($ctor === null || $ctor instanceof \ReflectionMethod);
+        foreach ($ctor !== null ? $ctor->getParameters() : [] as $parameter) {
+            assert($parameter instanceof \ReflectionParameter);
+
+            // stop building parameters when encountering first optional parameter
+            if ($parameter->isOptional()) {
+                break;
+            }
+
+            // ensure parameter is typed
+            $type = $parameter->getType();
+            if ($type === null) {
+                throw new \BadMethodCallException(self::parameterError($parameter) . ' has no type');
+            }
+
+            // if allowed, use null value without injecting any instances
+            assert($type instanceof \ReflectionType);
+            if ($type->allowsNull()) {
+                $params[] = null;
+                continue;
+            }
+
+            // abort for union types (PHP 8.0+) and intersection types (PHP 8.1+)
+            if ($type instanceof \ReflectionUnionType || $type instanceof \ReflectionIntersectionType) {
+                throw new \BadMethodCallException(self::parameterError($parameter) . ' expects unsupported type ' . $type); // @codeCoverageIgnore
+            }
+
+            assert($type instanceof \ReflectionNamedType);
+            if ($type->isBuiltin()) {
+                throw new \BadMethodCallException(self::parameterError($parameter) . ' expects unsupported type ' . $type->getName());
+            }
+
+            // abort for unreasonably deep nesting or recursive types
+            if ($depth < 1) {
+                throw new \BadMethodCallException(self::parameterError($parameter) . ' is recursive');
+            }
+
+            $params[] = $this->load($type->getName(), --$depth);
+        }
+
+        // instantiate with list of parameters
+        return $this->container[$name] = $params === [] ? new $name() : $class->newInstance(...$params);
+    }
+
+    private static function parameterError(\ReflectionParameter $parameter): string
+    {
+        return 'Argument ' . ($parameter->getPosition() + 1) . ' ($' . $parameter->getName() . ') of ' . explode("\0", $parameter->getDeclaringClass()->getName())[0] . '::' . $parameter->getDeclaringFunction()->getName() . '()';
+    }
+}
diff --git a/src/RouteHandler.php b/src/RouteHandler.php
index 526d8d3..3dbc16e 100644
--- a/src/RouteHandler.php
+++ b/src/RouteHandler.php
@@ -24,13 +24,14 @@ class RouteHandler
     /** @var ErrorHandler */
     private $errorHandler;
 
-    /** @var array<string,mixed> */
-    private static $container = [];
+    /** @var Container */
+    private $container;
 
-    public function __construct()
+    public function __construct(Container $container = null)
     {
         $this->routeCollector = new RouteCollector(new RouteParser(), new RouteGenerator());
         $this->errorHandler = new ErrorHandler();
+        $this->container = $container ?? new Container();
     }
 
     /**
@@ -44,12 +45,12 @@ public function map(array $methods, string $route, $handler, ...$handlers): void
         if ($handlers) {
             $handler = new MiddlewareHandler(array_map(
                 function ($handler) {
-                    return is_callable($handler) ? $handler : self::callable($handler);
+                    return is_callable($handler) ? $handler : $this->container->callable($handler);
                 },
                 array_merge([$handler], $handlers)
             ));
         } elseif (!is_callable($handler)) {
-            $handler = self::callable($handler);
+            $handler = $this->container->callable($handler);
         }
 
         $this->routeDispatcher = null;
@@ -86,117 +87,4 @@ public function __invoke(ServerRequestInterface $request)
                 return $handler($request);
         }
     } // @codeCoverageIgnore
-
-    /**
-     * @param class-string $class
-     * @return callable
-     */
-    private static function callable($class): callable
-    {
-        return function (ServerRequestInterface $request, callable $next = null) use ($class) {
-            // Check `$class` references a valid class name that can be autoloaded
-            if (!\class_exists($class, true) && !interface_exists($class, false) && !trait_exists($class, false)) {
-                throw new \BadMethodCallException('Request handler class ' . $class . ' not found');
-            }
-
-            try {
-                $handler = self::load($class);
-            } catch (\Throwable $e) {
-                throw new \BadMethodCallException(
-                    'Request handler class ' . $class . ' failed to load: ' . $e->getMessage(),
-                    0,
-                    $e
-                );
-            }
-
-            // Check `$handler` references a class name that is callable, i.e. has an `__invoke()` method.
-            // This initial version is intentionally limited to checking the method name only.
-            // A follow-up version will likely use reflection to check request handler argument types.
-            if (!is_callable($handler)) {
-                throw new \BadMethodCallException('Request handler class "' . $class . '" has no public __invoke() method');
-            }
-
-            // invoke request handler as middleware handler or final controller
-            if ($next === null) {
-                return $handler($request);
-            }
-            return $handler($request, $next);
-        };
-    }
-
-    private static function load(string $name, int $depth = 64)
-    {
-        if (isset(self::$container[$name])) {
-            return self::$container[$name];
-        }
-
-        // Check `$name` references a valid class name that can be autoloaded
-        if (!\class_exists($name, true) && !interface_exists($name, false) && !trait_exists($name, false)) {
-            throw new \BadMethodCallException('Class ' . $name . ' not found');
-        }
-
-        $class = new \ReflectionClass($name);
-        if (!$class->isInstantiable()) {
-            $modifier = 'class';
-            if ($class->isInterface()) {
-                $modifier = 'interface';
-            } elseif ($class->isAbstract()) {
-                $modifier = 'abstract class';
-            } elseif ($class->isTrait()) {
-                $modifier = 'trait';
-            }
-            throw new \BadMethodCallException('Cannot instantiate ' . $modifier . ' '. $name);
-        }
-
-        // build list of constructor parameters based on parameter types
-        $params = [];
-        $ctor = $class->getConstructor();
-        assert($ctor === null || $ctor instanceof \ReflectionMethod);
-        foreach ($ctor !== null ? $ctor->getParameters() : [] as $parameter) {
-            assert($parameter instanceof \ReflectionParameter);
-
-            // stop building parameters when encountering first optional parameter
-            if ($parameter->isOptional()) {
-                break;
-            }
-
-            // ensure parameter is typed
-            $type = $parameter->getType();
-            if ($type === null) {
-                throw new \BadMethodCallException(self::parameterError($parameter) . ' has no type');
-            }
-
-            // if allowed, use null value without injecting any instances
-            assert($type instanceof \ReflectionType);
-            if ($type->allowsNull()) {
-                $params[] = null;
-                continue;
-            }
-
-            // abort for union types (PHP 8.0+) and intersection types (PHP 8.1+)
-            if ($type instanceof \ReflectionUnionType || $type instanceof \ReflectionIntersectionType) {
-                throw new \BadMethodCallException(self::parameterError($parameter) . ' expects unsupported type ' . $type); // @codeCoverageIgnore
-            }
-
-            assert($type instanceof \ReflectionNamedType);
-            if ($type->isBuiltin()) {
-                throw new \BadMethodCallException(self::parameterError($parameter) . ' expects unsupported type ' . $type->getName());
-            }
-
-            // abort for unreasonably deep nesting or recursive types
-            if ($depth < 1) {
-                throw new \BadMethodCallException(self::parameterError($parameter) . ' is recursive');
-            }
-
-            $params[] = self::load($type->getName(), --$depth);
-        }
-
-        // instantiate with list of parameters
-        return self::$container[$name] = $params === [] ? new $name() : $class->newInstance(...$params);
-    }
-
-    private static function parameterError(\ReflectionParameter $parameter): string
-    {
-        return 'Argument ' . ($parameter->getPosition() + 1) . ' ($' . $parameter->getName() . ') of ' . explode("\0", $parameter->getDeclaringClass()->getName())[0] . '::' . $parameter->getDeclaringFunction()->getName() . '()';
-    }
 }
diff --git a/tests/AppMiddlewareTest.php b/tests/AppMiddlewareTest.php
index 3c47d2a..d891851 100644
--- a/tests/AppMiddlewareTest.php
+++ b/tests/AppMiddlewareTest.php
@@ -452,6 +452,112 @@ public function testGlobalMiddlewareCallsNextReturnsResponseFromController()
         $this->assertEquals("OK\n", (string) $response->getBody());
     }
 
+    public function testGlobalMiddlewareInstanceCallsNextReturnsResponseFromController()
+    {
+        $middleware = new class {
+            public function __invoke(ServerRequestInterface $request, callable $next)
+            {
+                return $next($request);
+            }
+        };
+
+        $app = $this->createAppWithoutLogger($middleware);
+
+        $app->get('/', function () {
+            return new Response(
+                200,
+                [
+                    'Content-Type' => 'text/html'
+                ],
+                "OK\n"
+            );
+        });
+
+        $request = new ServerRequest('GET', 'http://localhost/');
+
+        // $response = $app->handleRequest($request);
+        $ref = new \ReflectionMethod($app, 'handleRequest');
+        $ref->setAccessible(true);
+        $response = $ref->invoke($app, $request);
+
+        /** @var ResponseInterface $response */
+        $this->assertInstanceOf(ResponseInterface::class, $response);
+        $this->assertEquals(200, $response->getStatusCode());
+        $this->assertEquals('text/html', $response->getHeaderLine('Content-Type'));
+        $this->assertEquals("OK\n", (string) $response->getBody());
+    }
+
+    public function testGlobalMiddlewareClassNameCallsNextReturnsResponseFromController()
+    {
+        $middleware = new class {
+            public function __invoke(ServerRequestInterface $request, callable $next)
+            {
+                return $next($request);
+            }
+        };
+
+        $app = $this->createAppWithoutLogger(get_class($middleware));
+
+        $app->get('/', function () {
+            return new Response(
+                200,
+                [
+                    'Content-Type' => 'text/html'
+                ],
+                "OK\n"
+            );
+        });
+
+        $request = new ServerRequest('GET', 'http://localhost/');
+
+        // $response = $app->handleRequest($request);
+        $ref = new \ReflectionMethod($app, 'handleRequest');
+        $ref->setAccessible(true);
+        $response = $ref->invoke($app, $request);
+
+        /** @var ResponseInterface $response */
+        $this->assertInstanceOf(ResponseInterface::class, $response);
+        $this->assertEquals(200, $response->getStatusCode());
+        $this->assertEquals('text/html', $response->getHeaderLine('Content-Type'));
+        $this->assertEquals("OK\n", (string) $response->getBody());
+    }
+
+    public function testGlobalMiddlewareClassNameAndSameForRouterCallsSameMiddlewareInstanceTwiceAndNextReturnsResponseFromController()
+    {
+        $middleware = new class {
+            private $called = 0;
+            public function __invoke(ServerRequestInterface $request, callable $next)
+            {
+                return $next($request->withAttribute('called', ++$this->called));
+            }
+        };
+
+        $app = $this->createAppWithoutLogger(get_class($middleware));
+
+        $app->get('/', get_class($middleware), function (ServerRequestInterface $request) {
+            return new Response(
+                200,
+                [
+                    'Content-Type' => 'text/html'
+                ],
+                $request->getAttribute('called') . "\n"
+            );
+        });
+
+        $request = new ServerRequest('GET', 'http://localhost/');
+
+        // $response = $app->handleRequest($request);
+        $ref = new \ReflectionMethod($app, 'handleRequest');
+        $ref->setAccessible(true);
+        $response = $ref->invoke($app, $request);
+
+        /** @var ResponseInterface $response */
+        $this->assertInstanceOf(ResponseInterface::class, $response);
+        $this->assertEquals(200, $response->getStatusCode());
+        $this->assertEquals('text/html', $response->getHeaderLine('Content-Type'));
+        $this->assertEquals("2\n", (string) $response->getBody());
+    }
+
     public function testGlobalMiddlewareCallsNextWithModifiedRequestWillBeUsedForRouting()
     {
         $app = $this->createAppWithoutLogger(function (ServerRequestInterface $request, callable $next) {
@@ -669,7 +775,8 @@ public function testGlobalMiddlewareCallsNextReturnsPromiseWhichResolvesWithModi
         $this->assertEquals("OK\n", (string) $response->getBody());
     }
 
-    private function createAppWithoutLogger(callable ...$middleware): App
+    /** @param callable|class-string ...$middleware */
+    private function createAppWithoutLogger(...$middleware): App
     {
         $app = new App(...$middleware);
 
diff --git a/tests/AppTest.php b/tests/AppTest.php
index c553f4f..6810be9 100644
--- a/tests/AppTest.php
+++ b/tests/AppTest.php
@@ -1077,7 +1077,7 @@ public function testHandleRequestWithMatchingRouteReturnsInternalServerErrorResp
 
         $this->assertStringContainsString("<title>Error 500: Internal Server Error</title>\n", (string) $response->getBody());
         $this->assertStringContainsString("<p>The requested page failed to load, please try again later.</p>\n", (string) $response->getBody());
-        $this->assertStringMatchesFormat("%a<p>Expected request handler to return <code>Psr\Http\Message\ResponseInterface</code> but got uncaught <code>BadMethodCallException</code> with message <code>Request handler class UnknownClass not found</code> in <code title=\"See %s\">RouteHandler.php:%d</code>.</p>\n%a", (string) $response->getBody());
+        $this->assertStringMatchesFormat("%a<p>Expected request handler to return <code>Psr\Http\Message\ResponseInterface</code> but got uncaught <code>BadMethodCallException</code> with message <code>Request handler class UnknownClass not found</code> in <code title=\"See %s\">Container.php:%d</code>.</p>\n%a", (string) $response->getBody());
     }
 
     public function provideInvalidClasses()
@@ -1168,7 +1168,7 @@ public function testHandleRequestWithMatchingRouteReturnsInternalServerErrorResp
 
         $this->assertStringContainsString("<title>Error 500: Internal Server Error</title>\n", (string) $response->getBody());
         $this->assertStringContainsString("<p>The requested page failed to load, please try again later.</p>\n", (string) $response->getBody());
-        $this->assertStringMatchesFormat("%a<p>Expected request handler to return <code>Psr\Http\Message\ResponseInterface</code> but got uncaught <code>BadMethodCallException</code> with message <code>Request handler class " . addslashes($class) . " failed to load: $error</code> in <code title=\"See %s\">RouteHandler.php:%d</code>.</p>\n%a", (string) $response->getBody());
+        $this->assertStringMatchesFormat("%a<p>Expected request handler to return <code>Psr\Http\Message\ResponseInterface</code> but got uncaught <code>BadMethodCallException</code> with message <code>Request handler class " . addslashes($class) . " failed to load: $error</code> in <code title=\"See %s\">Container.php:%d</code>.</p>\n%a", (string) $response->getBody());
     }
 
     public function testHandleRequestWithMatchingRouteReturnsInternalServerErrorResponseWhenHandlerClassRequiresUnexpectedCallableParameter()
@@ -1223,7 +1223,7 @@ public function testHandleRequestWithMatchingRouteReturnsInternalServerErrorResp
 
         $this->assertStringContainsString("<title>Error 500: Internal Server Error</title>\n", (string) $response->getBody());
         $this->assertStringContainsString("<p>The requested page failed to load, please try again later.</p>\n", (string) $response->getBody());
-        $this->assertStringMatchesFormat("%a<p>Expected request handler to return <code>Psr\Http\Message\ResponseInterface</code> but got uncaught <code>BadMethodCallException</code> with message <code>Request handler class %s has no public __invoke() method</code> in <code title=\"See %s\">RouteHandler.php:%d</code>.</p>\n%a", (string) $response->getBody());
+        $this->assertStringMatchesFormat("%a<p>Expected request handler to return <code>Psr\Http\Message\ResponseInterface</code> but got uncaught <code>BadMethodCallException</code> with message <code>Request handler class %s has no public __invoke() method</code> in <code title=\"See %s\">Container.php:%d</code>.</p>\n%a", (string) $response->getBody());
     }
 
     public function testHandleRequestWithMatchingRouteReturnsPromiseWhichFulfillsWithInternalServerErrorResponseWhenHandlerReturnsPromiseWhichFulfillsWithWrongValue()